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Conformations and Cycloalkanes
Ranking The Bulkiness Of Substituents On Cyclohexanes: “A-Values”
Last updated: December 13th, 2022 |
“A-Values” For Substituted Cyclohexanes
“A-Values” are a numerical way of rating the bulkiness of substituents on a cyclohexane ring. The “A-Value” represents the difference in energy (in kcal/mol) between the cyclohexane conformation bearing the group in the equatorial position (more favored) and the cyclohexane conformation bearing the group in the axial position. The greater the “A-value” the higher the energetic preference for the equatorial position, and the more “bulky” the group is considered.
Table of Contents
- A Numerical Ranking of “Bulkiness” For Cyclohexane Substituents
- Ethyl (1.75 kcal/mol)
- Hydroxyl (OH) (0.87 kcal/mol)
- Br (0.43 kcal/mol)
- Isopropyl (2.15 kcal/mol)
- tert-Butyl (4.9 kcal/mol)
- Summary: “A-Values”
- Notes
- (Advanced) References and Further Reading
1. A Numerical Ranking Of “Bulkiness” For Cyclohexane Substituents
In the last post we saw that adding a methyl group to cyclohexane results in two chair conformers that are unequal in energy. We saw that the conformer where the methyl group was equatorial is the most stable, since it avoids destabilizing diaxial interactions (technically, gauche interactions) that are present in the conformer when the methyl group is axial.
We also said that experiments tell us that 1-methylcyclohexane exists as a 95:5 ratio of conformers at room temperature (favouring the more stable equatorial conformer) and by using the equation ΔG = –RT ln K we can calculate the energy difference, which turns out to be 1.70 kcal/mol.
The next logical question is this. What’s the energy difference for other groups? For example, what happens when we substitute ethyl (CH2CH3) for methyl ? Or OH ? Or Br ? Or tert-butyl ? How is the equilibrium affected?
In order to find this out, it’s necessary to set up some experiments that allow us to measure these numbers. However, it’s all been done for us, so we can now present the results.
2. Ethyl (1.75 kcal/mol)
An ethyl group is one carbon larger than a methyl group. Naively, we might think that since it’s twice as long, it has twice as much steric hindrance, and the energy difference would be twice as big. However, the difference in energy is only 1.75 kcal/mol (compare to methyl at 1.70 kcal/mol). This is because the only significant diaxial interactions are with the CH2 group. The ethyl group can rotate such that the CH3 points away from the ring, where it does not lead to any significant increase in strain.
3. Hydroxyl (OH) (0.87 kcal/mol)
Given that oxygen has a larger atomic number than carbon, it’s not unreasonable to think that the OH group might be “bulkier” than carbon. When you think about the source of strain in CH3, however, you realize that it’s not necessarily the size of the carbon atom itself but the hydrogens of CH3 interacting with the axial hydrogens on the ring that lead to strain. Oxygen, having only one hydrogen, can always rotate such that the H is pointing away from the cyclohexane, thereby leading to very little in the way of diaxial interactions with the ring.
The value for OCH3 is even less (0.6 kcal/mol).
4. Br (0.43 kcal/mol)
Along similar lines one could be forgiven for thinking that Br, being such a heavy and large atom, might exert a large destabilizing influence when in the axial position. However, the difference is only 0.43 kcal/mol, less than that for OH. Why might this be? The answer here is bond length. The average C-Br bond is about 193 picometers in length (1.93 Angstroms) – compare this to 1.50 for the bond between C and CH3 in cyclohexane. The Br, being farther away, will thus have less interaction with the axial hydrogens. [Note – this A value of 0.43 is the average of two experimentally determined values [0.38 and 0.48]. ]
Interestingly, despite their great difference in size, the A values for Cl, Br, and I are all roughly similar (about 0.43 or so). This is because the increased size is balanced by the increased bond length – the halogens might be increasing in size along Cl <Br < I – but they are also getting farther away.
5. Isopropyl [-CH(CH3)2] (2.15 kcal/mol)
In contrast to ethyl, which has a secondary carbon attached to the ring, the isopropyl group represents a tertiary carbon attached to the cyclohexane. There is a relatively small but significant increase in strain to 2.15 kcal/mol . This is because the isopropyl group can still adopt a conformation where the C-H bond lies over the cyclohexane ring, which does not bring it into significant contact with the axial C-H bonds.
6. tert-butyl [-C(CH3)3] (4.9 kcal/mol)
This is the biggie. Look at the huge difference in energy between t-butyl (4.9 kcal/mol) and isopropyl (2.15 kcal/mol). What might account for that extra 2.7 kcal/mol in strain energy.
It helps to look at a figure.
Notice how there’s no way to rotate the t-butyl group such that the methyl group is NOT pointing over the ring. A diaxial interaction between one of the methyl groups and an axial C-H is unavoidable. Axial t-butyl groups are strongly disfavoured.
What is the consequence of that value of 4.9 kcal/mol ? If we calculate the equilibrium constant K , it gives us a ratio of about 10,000 : 1 [accounting for only 2 significant figures here].
In other words, the concentration of axial t-butyl is 1/10,000 of that of equatorial t-butyl.
This value is so small that we often think of the t-butyl group as “locking” the cyclohexane ring in a position where the t-butyl is equatorial.
As we’ll see, this will have very important consequences for future reactions you’ll learn such as substitution and elimination, which can be sensitive to stereochemistry.
7. Summary: “A Values”
It’s nice to have some shorthand. For a mono-substituted cyclohexane, the energy difference between axial and equatorial conformers with a given substituent is known as its A-value.
For example, the A value of methyl is 1.70 , ethyl is 1.75, OH is 0.87, Br is 0.43, i-Pr is 2.15, and t-Bu is 4.9 .
A-values are useful because they are additive. We can use them to figure out the energy differences between di- and trisubstituted cyclohexanes, which is what we’ll talk about in the next post.
Notes
Related Articles
- Cyclohexane Chair Conformation Stability: Which One Is Lower Energy?
- Fused Rings – Cis-Decalin and Trans-Decalin
- Naming Bicyclic Compounds – Fused, Bridged, and Spiro
- Bredt’s Rule (And Summary of Cycloalkanes)
- Cycloalkanes Practice Problems
- Substituted Cyclohexanes – Axial vs Equatorial
- The Cyclohexane Chair Flip – Energy Diagram
Note 1. Here is a brief table of relevant A-values for introductory organic chemistry. These are taken from Hans Reich’s awesome website. Values might differ from Wikipedia because figures are averaged. [Note – these values are only valid for six-membered rings! but they do give you an idea of relative bulkiness of the substituents that can be applied to other ring sizes]
(Advanced) References and Further Reading
A-Values
This is a topic commonly taught to undergraduates in Organic Chemistry. A-values are empirically derived and denote the thermodynamic preference for a substituent to be in the axial or equatorial position in cyclohexane.
- Electron Diffraction Investigations of Molecular Structures. II. Results Obtained by the Rotating Sector Method.
Hassel, O.; Viervoll, H.
Acta Chem. Scand. 1947, 1, 149-168
DOI: 3891/acta.chem.scand.01-0149 - The Structure of Molecules Containing Cyclohexane or Pyranose Rings.
Hassel, O.; Ottar, B.
Acta Chem. Scand. 1947, 1, 929-943
DOI: 3891/acta.chem.scand.01-0929
Odd Hassel first confirmed that cyclohexane exists in the now commonly accepted chair confirmation. He also proposed that substituents can take two different types of positions on the ring, which he called c- and e-bonds. He also showed that the conformational analysis of cyclohexanes can be extended to other unsaturated 6-membered rings, such as the pyranoses commonly found in carbohydrates. Odd Hassel later shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Prof. D. H. R. Barton for his work on conformational analysis. - The Thermodynamic Properties and Molecular Structure of Cyclohexane, Methylcyclohexane, Ethylcyclohexane and the Seven Dimethylcyclohexanes
Charles W. Beckett, Kenneth S. Pitzer, and Ralph Spitzer
Journal of the American Chemical Society 1947, 69 (10), 2488-2495
DOI: 1021/ja01202a070
This paper first proposes the terms ‘polar’ and ‘equatorial’ for the two types of positions substituents can take in cyclohexane. - Nomenclature of cycloHexane Bonds
BARTON, D., HASSEL, O., PITZER, K., PRELOG, V.
Nature 1953, 172, 1096–1097
DOI: 1038/1721096b0
This is the first instance of the terms ‘axial’ and ‘equatorial’ being used to denote the two positions substituents can take in cyclohexane. - Neighboring Carbon and Hydrogen. XIX. t-Butylcyclohexyl Derivatives. Quantitative Conformational Analysis
S. Winstein and N. J. Holness
Journal of the American Chemical Society 1955, 77 (21), 5562-5578
DOI: 10.1021/ja01626a037
An early paper on the determination of A-values (see Table XII) through kinetic (solvolytic) measurements, which is what Prof. Winstein was well known for. The introduction features a nice summary of how A-values are determined, and later on, Prof. Winstein states “The energy quantity by which a t-butyl group favors the equatorial position is sufficiently large to guarantee conformational homogeneity to most 4-t-butylcyclohexyl derivatives”, in agreement with what is commonly taught in organic chemistry classes today. - Table of Conformational Energies—1967
Jerry A. Hirsch
Topics in Stereochemistry 1967, 1, 199-222
DOI: 1002/9780470147108.ch4
This paper contains a detailed list of various types of functional groups with A-values, including references to the original sources and details on measurement methods. - A Values
This page in Prof. Hans Reich’s (U Wisconsin-Madison) website contains a handy list of A-values, with references. - The experimental determination of the conformational free energy, enthalpy, and entropy differences for alkyl groups in alkylcyclohexanes by low temperature carbon-13 magnetic resonance spectroscopy
Harold Booth and Jeremy R. Everett
Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 2, 1980, 255-259
DOI: 10.1039/P29800000255
This paper covers the use of NMR methods to determine the free energy differences between axial- and equatorial-subtituted alkylcyclohexanes (in essence, A-values). - The conformational preference (a value) of deuterium in monodeuteriocyclohexane from deuteron integration at low temperatures
Frank A. L Anet, Daniel J. O’Leary
Tetrahedron Lett. 1989, 30 (9), 1059-1062
DOI: 10.1016/S0040-4039(01)80358-0
This paper describes an NMR study to determine the A-value of the deuterium substituent in cyclohexane-D1. - The conformational equilibrium of the amino group
L. Eliel, E. W. Della, T. H. Williams
Tet. Lett. 1963, 4 (13), 831-835
DOI: 10.1016/S0040-4039(01)90724-5
This paper describes a study on measuring the A-value for the amino group in neutral and acidic media (where it would be -NH3+).
00 General Chemistry Review
01 Bonding, Structure, and Resonance
- How Do We Know Methane (CH4) Is Tetrahedral?
- Hybrid Orbitals and Hybridization
- How To Determine Hybridization: A Shortcut
- Orbital Hybridization And Bond Strengths
- Sigma bonds come in six varieties: Pi bonds come in one
- A Key Skill: How to Calculate Formal Charge
- The Four Intermolecular Forces and How They Affect Boiling Points
- 3 Trends That Affect Boiling Points
- How To Use Electronegativity To Determine Electron Density (and why NOT to trust formal charge)
- Introduction to Resonance
- How To Use Curved Arrows To Interchange Resonance Forms
- Evaluating Resonance Forms (1) - The Rule of Least Charges
- How To Find The Best Resonance Structure By Applying Electronegativity
- Evaluating Resonance Structures With Negative Charges
- Evaluating Resonance Structures With Positive Charge
- Exploring Resonance: Pi-Donation
- Exploring Resonance: Pi-acceptors
- In Summary: Evaluating Resonance Structures
- Drawing Resonance Structures: 3 Common Mistakes To Avoid
- How to apply electronegativity and resonance to understand reactivity
- Bond Hybridization Practice
- Structure and Bonding Practice Quizzes
- Resonance Structures Practice
02 Acid Base Reactions
- Introduction to Acid-Base Reactions
- Acid Base Reactions In Organic Chemistry
- The Stronger The Acid, The Weaker The Conjugate Base
- Walkthrough of Acid-Base Reactions (3) - Acidity Trends
- Five Key Factors That Influence Acidity
- Acid-Base Reactions: Introducing Ka and pKa
- How to Use a pKa Table
- The pKa Table Is Your Friend
- A Handy Rule of Thumb for Acid-Base Reactions
- Acid Base Reactions Are Fast
- pKa Values Span 60 Orders Of Magnitude
- How Protonation and Deprotonation Affect Reactivity
- Acid Base Practice Problems
03 Alkanes and Nomenclature
- Meet the (Most Important) Functional Groups
- Condensed Formulas: Deciphering What the Brackets Mean
- Hidden Hydrogens, Hidden Lone Pairs, Hidden Counterions
- Don't Be Futyl, Learn The Butyls
- Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary In Organic Chemistry
- Branching, and Its Affect On Melting and Boiling Points
- The Many, Many Ways of Drawing Butane
- Wedge And Dash Convention For Tetrahedral Carbon
- Common Mistakes in Organic Chemistry: Pentavalent Carbon
- Table of Functional Group Priorities for Nomenclature
- Summary Sheet - Alkane Nomenclature
- Organic Chemistry IUPAC Nomenclature Demystified With A Simple Puzzle Piece Approach
- Boiling Point Quizzes
- Organic Chemistry Nomenclature Quizzes
04 Conformations and Cycloalkanes
- Staggered vs Eclipsed Conformations of Ethane
- Conformational Isomers of Propane
- Newman Projection of Butane (and Gauche Conformation)
- Introduction to Cycloalkanes (1)
- Geometric Isomers In Small Rings: Cis And Trans Cycloalkanes
- Calculation of Ring Strain In Cycloalkanes
- Cycloalkanes - Ring Strain In Cyclopropane And Cyclobutane
- Cyclohexane Conformations
- Cyclohexane Chair Conformation: An Aerial Tour
- How To Draw The Cyclohexane Chair Conformation
- The Cyclohexane Chair Flip
- The Cyclohexane Chair Flip - Energy Diagram
- Substituted Cyclohexanes - Axial vs Equatorial
- Ranking The Bulkiness Of Substituents On Cyclohexanes: "A-Values"
- Cyclohexane Chair Conformation Stability: Which One Is Lower Energy?
- Fused Rings - Cis-Decalin and Trans-Decalin
- Naming Bicyclic Compounds - Fused, Bridged, and Spiro
- Bredt's Rule (And Summary of Cycloalkanes)
- Newman Projection Practice
- Cycloalkanes Practice Problems
05 A Primer On Organic Reactions
- The Most Important Question To Ask When Learning a New Reaction
- Learning New Reactions: How Do The Electrons Move?
- The Third Most Important Question to Ask When Learning A New Reaction
- 7 Factors that stabilize negative charge in organic chemistry
- 7 Factors That Stabilize Positive Charge in Organic Chemistry
- Nucleophiles and Electrophiles
- Curved Arrows (for reactions)
- Curved Arrows (2): Initial Tails and Final Heads
- Nucleophilicity vs. Basicity
- The Three Classes of Nucleophiles
- What Makes A Good Nucleophile?
- What makes a good leaving group?
- 3 Factors That Stabilize Carbocations
- Equilibrium and Energy Relationships
- What's a Transition State?
- Hammond's Postulate
- Learning Organic Chemistry Reactions: A Checklist (PDF)
- Introduction to Free Radical Substitution Reactions
- Introduction to Oxidative Cleavage Reactions
06 Free Radical Reactions
- Bond Dissociation Energies = Homolytic Cleavage
- Free Radical Reactions
- 3 Factors That Stabilize Free Radicals
- What Factors Destabilize Free Radicals?
- Bond Strengths And Radical Stability
- Free Radical Initiation: Why Is "Light" Or "Heat" Required?
- Initiation, Propagation, Termination
- Monochlorination Products Of Propane, Pentane, And Other Alkanes
- Selectivity In Free Radical Reactions
- Selectivity in Free Radical Reactions: Bromination vs. Chlorination
- Halogenation At Tiffany's
- Allylic Bromination
- Bonus Topic: Allylic Rearrangements
- In Summary: Free Radicals
- Synthesis (2) - Reactions of Alkanes
- Free Radicals Practice Quizzes
07 Stereochemistry and Chirality
- Types of Isomers: Constitutional Isomers, Stereoisomers, Enantiomers, and Diastereomers
- How To Draw The Enantiomer Of A Chiral Molecule
- How To Draw A Bond Rotation
- Introduction to Assigning (R) and (S): The Cahn-Ingold-Prelog Rules
- Assigning Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) Priorities (2) - The Method of Dots
- Enantiomers vs Diastereomers vs The Same? Two Methods For Solving Problems
- Assigning R/S To Newman Projections (And Converting Newman To Line Diagrams)
- How To Determine R and S Configurations On A Fischer Projection
- The Meso Trap
- Optical Rotation, Optical Activity, and Specific Rotation
- Optical Purity and Enantiomeric Excess
- What's a Racemic Mixture?
- Chiral Allenes And Chiral Axes
- Stereochemistry Practice Problems and Quizzes
08 Substitution Reactions
- Introduction to Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
- Walkthrough of Substitution Reactions (1) - Introduction
- Two Types of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
- The SN2 Mechanism
- Why the SN2 Reaction Is Powerful
- The SN1 Mechanism
- The Conjugate Acid Is A Better Leaving Group
- Comparing the SN1 and SN2 Reactions
- Polar Protic? Polar Aprotic? Nonpolar? All About Solvents
- Steric Hindrance is Like a Fat Goalie
- Common Blind Spot: Intramolecular Reactions
- The Conjugate Base is Always a Stronger Nucleophile
- Substitution Practice - SN1
- Substitution Practice - SN2
09 Elimination Reactions
- Elimination Reactions (1): Introduction And The Key Pattern
- Elimination Reactions (2): The Zaitsev Rule
- Elimination Reactions Are Favored By Heat
- Two Elimination Reaction Patterns
- The E1 Reaction
- The E2 Mechanism
- E1 vs E2: Comparing the E1 and E2 Reactions
- Antiperiplanar Relationships: The E2 Reaction and Cyclohexane Rings
- Bulky Bases in Elimination Reactions
- Comparing the E1 vs SN1 Reactions
- Elimination (E1) Reactions With Rearrangements
- E1cB - Elimination (Unimolecular) Conjugate Base
- Elimination (E1) Practice Problems And Solutions
- Elimination (E2) Practice Problems and Solutions
10 Rearrangements
11 SN1/SN2/E1/E2 Decision
- Identifying Where Substitution and Elimination Reactions Happen
- Deciding SN1/SN2/E1/E2 (1) - The Substrate
- Deciding SN1/SN2/E1/E2 (2) - The Nucleophile/Base
- SN1 vs E1 and SN2 vs E2 : The Temperature
- Deciding SN1/SN2/E1/E2 - The Solvent
- Wrapup: The Key Factors For Determining SN1/SN2/E1/E2
- Alkyl Halide Reaction Map And Summary
- SN1 SN2 E1 E2 Practice Problems
12 Alkene Reactions
- E and Z Notation For Alkenes (+ Cis/Trans)
- Alkene Stability
- Alkene Addition Reactions: "Regioselectivity" and "Stereoselectivity" (Syn/Anti)
- Stereoselective and Stereospecific Reactions
- Hydrohalogenation of Alkenes and Markovnikov's Rule
- Hydration of Alkenes With Aqueous Acid
- Rearrangements in Alkene Addition Reactions
- Halogenation of Alkenes and Halohydrin Formation
- Oxymercuration Demercuration of Alkenes
- Hydroboration Oxidation of Alkenes
- m-CPBA (meta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid)
- OsO4 (Osmium Tetroxide) for Dihydroxylation of Alkenes
- Palladium on Carbon (Pd/C) for Catalytic Hydrogenation of Alkenes
- Cyclopropanation of Alkenes
- A Fourth Alkene Addition Pattern - Free Radical Addition
- Alkene Reactions: Ozonolysis
- Summary: Three Key Families Of Alkene Reaction Mechanisms
- Synthesis (4) - Alkene Reaction Map, Including Alkyl Halide Reactions
- Alkene Reactions Practice Problems
13 Alkyne Reactions
- Acetylides from Alkynes, And Substitution Reactions of Acetylides
- Partial Reduction of Alkynes With Lindlar's Catalyst
- Partial Reduction of Alkynes With Na/NH3 To Obtain Trans Alkenes
- Alkyne Hydroboration With "R2BH"
- Hydration and Oxymercuration of Alkynes
- Hydrohalogenation of Alkynes
- Alkyne Halogenation: Bromination, Chlorination, and Iodination of Alkynes
- Alkyne Reactions - The "Concerted" Pathway
- Alkenes To Alkynes Via Halogenation And Elimination Reactions
- Alkynes Are A Blank Canvas
- Synthesis (5) - Reactions of Alkynes
- Alkyne Reactions Practice Problems With Answers
14 Alcohols, Epoxides and Ethers
- Alcohols - Nomenclature and Properties
- Alcohols Can Act As Acids Or Bases (And Why It Matters)
- Alcohols - Acidity and Basicity
- The Williamson Ether Synthesis
- Ethers From Alkenes, Tertiary Alkyl Halides and Alkoxymercuration
- Alcohols To Ethers via Acid Catalysis
- Cleavage Of Ethers With Acid
- Epoxides - The Outlier Of The Ether Family
- Opening of Epoxides With Acid
- Epoxide Ring Opening With Base
- Making Alkyl Halides From Alcohols
- Tosylates And Mesylates
- PBr3 and SOCl2
- Elimination Reactions of Alcohols
- Elimination of Alcohols To Alkenes With POCl3
- Alcohol Oxidation: "Strong" and "Weak" Oxidants
- Demystifying The Mechanisms of Alcohol Oxidations
- Protecting Groups For Alcohols
- Thiols And Thioethers
- Calculating the oxidation state of a carbon
- Oxidation and Reduction in Organic Chemistry
- Oxidation Ladders
- SOCl2 Mechanism For Alcohols To Alkyl Halides: SN2 versus SNi
- Alcohol Reactions Roadmap (PDF)
- Alcohol Reaction Practice Problems
- Epoxide Reaction Quizzes
- Oxidation and Reduction Practice Quizzes
15 Organometallics
- What's An Organometallic?
- Formation of Grignard and Organolithium Reagents
- Organometallics Are Strong Bases
- Reactions of Grignard Reagents
- Protecting Groups In Grignard Reactions
- Synthesis Problems Involving Grignard Reagents
- Grignard Reactions And Synthesis (2)
- Organocuprates (Gilman Reagents): How They're Made
- Gilman Reagents (Organocuprates): What They're Used For
- The Heck, Suzuki, and Olefin Metathesis Reactions (And Why They Don't Belong In Most Introductory Organic Chemistry Courses)
- Reaction Map: Reactions of Organometallics
- Grignard Practice Problems
16 Spectroscopy
- Degrees of Unsaturation (or IHD, Index of Hydrogen Deficiency)
- Conjugation And Color (+ How Bleach Works)
- Introduction To UV-Vis Spectroscopy
- UV-Vis Spectroscopy: Absorbance of Carbonyls
- UV-Vis Spectroscopy: Practice Questions
- Bond Vibrations, Infrared Spectroscopy, and the "Ball and Spring" Model
- Infrared Spectroscopy: A Quick Primer On Interpreting Spectra
- IR Spectroscopy: 4 Practice Problems
- 1H NMR: How Many Signals?
- Homotopic, Enantiotopic, Diastereotopic
- Diastereotopic Protons in 1H NMR Spectroscopy: Examples
- C13 NMR - How Many Signals
- Liquid Gold: Pheromones In Doe Urine
- Natural Product Isolation (1) - Extraction
- Natural Product Isolation (2) - Purification Techniques, An Overview
- Structure Determination Case Study: Deer Tarsal Gland Pheromone
17 Dienes and MO Theory
- What To Expect In Organic Chemistry 2
- Are these molecules conjugated?
- Conjugation And Resonance In Organic Chemistry
- Bonding And Antibonding Pi Orbitals
- Molecular Orbitals of The Allyl Cation, Allyl Radical, and Allyl Anion
- Pi Molecular Orbitals of Butadiene
- Reactions of Dienes: 1,2 and 1,4 Addition
- Thermodynamic and Kinetic Products
- More On 1,2 and 1,4 Additions To Dienes
- s-cis and s-trans
- The Diels-Alder Reaction
- Cyclic Dienes and Dienophiles in the Diels-Alder Reaction
- Stereochemistry of the Diels-Alder Reaction
- Exo vs Endo Products In The Diels Alder: How To Tell Them Apart
- HOMO and LUMO In the Diels Alder Reaction
- Why Are Endo vs Exo Products Favored in the Diels-Alder Reaction?
- Diels-Alder Reaction: Kinetic and Thermodynamic Control
- The Retro Diels-Alder Reaction
- The Intramolecular Diels Alder Reaction
- Regiochemistry In The Diels-Alder Reaction
- The Cope and Claisen Rearrangements
- Electrocyclic Reactions
- Electrocyclic Ring Opening And Closure (2) - Six (or Eight) Pi Electrons
- Diels Alder Practice Problems
- Molecular Orbital Theory Practice
18 Aromaticity
- Introduction To Aromaticity
- Rules For Aromaticity
- Huckel's Rule: What Does 4n+2 Mean?
- Aromatic, Non-Aromatic, or Antiaromatic? Some Practice Problems
- Antiaromatic Compounds and Antiaromaticity
- The Pi Molecular Orbitals of Benzene
- The Pi Molecular Orbitals of Cyclobutadiene
- Frost Circles
- Aromaticity Practice Quizzes
19 Reactions of Aromatic Molecules
- Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution: Introduction
- Activating and Deactivating Groups In Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution
- Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution - The Mechanism
- Ortho-, Para- and Meta- Directors in Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution
- Understanding Ortho, Para, and Meta Directors
- Why are halogens ortho- para- directors?
- Disubstituted Benzenes: The Strongest Electron-Donor "Wins"
- Electrophilic Aromatic Substitutions (1) - Halogenation of Benzene
- Electrophilic Aromatic Substitutions (2) - Nitration and Sulfonation
- EAS Reactions (3) - Friedel-Crafts Acylation and Friedel-Crafts Alkylation
- Intramolecular Friedel-Crafts Reactions
- Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution (NAS)
- Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution (2) - The Benzyne Mechanism
- Reactions on the "Benzylic" Carbon: Bromination And Oxidation
- The Wolff-Kishner, Clemmensen, And Other Carbonyl Reductions
- More Reactions on the Aromatic Sidechain: Reduction of Nitro Groups and the Baeyer Villiger
- Aromatic Synthesis (1) - "Order Of Operations"
- Synthesis of Benzene Derivatives (2) - Polarity Reversal
- Aromatic Synthesis (3) - Sulfonyl Blocking Groups
- Birch Reduction
- Synthesis (7): Reaction Map of Benzene and Related Aromatic Compounds
- Aromatic Reactions and Synthesis Practice
- Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution Practice Problems
20 Aldehydes and Ketones
- What's The Alpha Carbon In Carbonyl Compounds?
- Nucleophilic Addition To Carbonyls
- Aldehydes and Ketones: 14 Reactions With The Same Mechanism
- Sodium Borohydride (NaBH4) Reduction of Aldehydes and Ketones
- Grignard Reagents For Addition To Aldehydes and Ketones
- Wittig Reaction
- Hydrates, Hemiacetals, and Acetals
- Imines - Properties, Formation, Reactions, and Mechanisms
- All About Enamines
- Breaking Down Carbonyl Reaction Mechanisms: Reactions of Anionic Nucleophiles (Part 2)
- Aldehydes Ketones Reaction Practice
21 Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
- Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution (With Negatively Charged Nucleophiles)
- Addition-Elimination Mechanisms With Neutral Nucleophiles (Including Acid Catalysis)
- Basic Hydrolysis of Esters - Saponification
- Transesterification
- Proton Transfer
- Fischer Esterification - Carboxylic Acid to Ester Under Acidic Conditions
- Lithium Aluminum Hydride (LiAlH4) For Reduction of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
- LiAlH[Ot-Bu]3 For The Reduction of Acid Halides To Aldehydes
- Di-isobutyl Aluminum Hydride (DIBAL) For The Partial Reduction of Esters and Nitriles
- Amide Hydrolysis
- Thionyl Chloride (SOCl2)
- Diazomethane (CH2N2)
- Carbonyl Chemistry: Learn Six Mechanisms For the Price Of One
- Making Music With Mechanisms (PADPED)
- Carboxylic Acid Derivatives Practice Questions
22 Enols and Enolates
- Keto-Enol Tautomerism
- Enolates - Formation, Stability, and Simple Reactions
- Kinetic Versus Thermodynamic Enolates
- Aldol Addition and Condensation Reactions
- Reactions of Enols - Acid-Catalyzed Aldol, Halogenation, and Mannich Reactions
- Claisen Condensation and Dieckmann Condensation
- Decarboxylation
- The Malonic Ester and Acetoacetic Ester Synthesis
- The Michael Addition Reaction and Conjugate Addition
- The Robinson Annulation
- Haloform Reaction
- The Hell–Volhard–Zelinsky Reaction
- Enols and Enolates Practice Quizzes
23 Amines
- The Amide Functional Group: Properties, Synthesis, and Nomenclature
- Basicity of Amines And pKaH
- 5 Key Basicity Trends of Amines
- The Mesomeric Effect And Aromatic Amines
- Nucleophilicity of Amines
- Alkylation of Amines (Sucks!)
- Reductive Amination
- The Gabriel Synthesis
- Some Reactions of Azides
- The Hofmann Elimination
- The Hofmann and Curtius Rearrangements
- The Cope Elimination
- Protecting Groups for Amines - Carbamates
- The Strecker Synthesis of Amino Acids
- Introduction to Peptide Synthesis
- Reactions of Diazonium Salts: Sandmeyer and Related Reactions
- Amine Practice Questions
24 Carbohydrates
- D and L Notation For Sugars
- Pyranoses and Furanoses: Ring-Chain Tautomerism In Sugars
- What is Mutarotation?
- Reducing Sugars
- The Big Damn Post Of Carbohydrate-Related Chemistry Definitions
- The Haworth Projection
- Converting a Fischer Projection To A Haworth (And Vice Versa)
- Reactions of Sugars: Glycosylation and Protection
- The Ruff Degradation and Kiliani-Fischer Synthesis
- Isoelectric Points of Amino Acids (and How To Calculate Them)
- Carbohydrates Practice
- Amino Acid Quizzes
25 Fun and Miscellaneous
- A Gallery of Some Interesting Molecules From Nature
- Screw Organic Chemistry, I'm Just Going To Write About Cats
- On Cats, Part 1: Conformations and Configurations
- On Cats, Part 2: Cat Line Diagrams
- On Cats, Part 4: Enantiocats
- On Cats, Part 6: Stereocenters
- Organic Chemistry Is Shit
- The Organic Chemistry Behind "The Pill"
- Maybe they should call them, "Formal Wins" ?
- Why Do Organic Chemists Use Kilocalories?
- The Principle of Least Effort
- Organic Chemistry GIFS - Resonance Forms
- Reproducibility In Organic Chemistry
- What Holds The Nucleus Together?
- How Reactions Are Like Music
- Organic Chemistry and the New MCAT
26 Organic Chemistry Tips and Tricks
- Common Mistakes: Formal Charges Can Mislead
- Partial Charges Give Clues About Electron Flow
- Draw The Ugly Version First
- Organic Chemistry Study Tips: Learn the Trends
- The 8 Types of Arrows In Organic Chemistry, Explained
- Top 10 Skills To Master Before An Organic Chemistry 2 Final
- Common Mistakes with Carbonyls: Carboxylic Acids... Are Acids!
- Planning Organic Synthesis With "Reaction Maps"
- Alkene Addition Pattern #1: The "Carbocation Pathway"
- Alkene Addition Pattern #2: The "Three-Membered Ring" Pathway
- Alkene Addition Pattern #3: The "Concerted" Pathway
- Number Your Carbons!
- The 4 Major Classes of Reactions in Org 1
- How (and why) electrons flow
- Grossman's Rule
- Three Exam Tips
- A 3-Step Method For Thinking Through Synthesis Problems
- Putting It Together
- Putting Diels-Alder Products in Perspective
- The Ups and Downs of Cyclohexanes
- The Most Annoying Exceptions in Org 1 (Part 1)
- The Most Annoying Exceptions in Org 1 (Part 2)
- The Marriage May Be Bad, But the Divorce Still Costs Money
- 9 Nomenclature Conventions To Know
- Nucleophile attacks Electrophile
27 Case Studies of Successful O-Chem Students
- Success Stories: How Corina Got The The "Hard" Professor - And Got An A+ Anyway
- How Helena Aced Organic Chemistry
- From a "Drop" To B+ in Org 2 – How A Hard Working Student Turned It Around
- How Serge Aced Organic Chemistry
- Success Stories: How Zach Aced Organic Chemistry 1
- Success Stories: How Kari Went From C– to B+
- How Esther Bounced Back From a "C" To Get A's In Organic Chemistry 1 And 2
- How Tyrell Got The Highest Grade In Her Organic Chemistry Course
- This Is Why Students Use Flashcards
- Success Stories: How Stu Aced Organic Chemistry
- How John Pulled Up His Organic Chemistry Exam Grades
- Success Stories: How Nathan Aced Organic Chemistry (Without It Taking Over His Life)
- How Chris Aced Org 1 and Org 2
- Interview: How Jay Got an A+ In Organic Chemistry
- How to Do Well in Organic Chemistry: One Student's Advice
- "America's Top TA" Shares His Secrets For Teaching O-Chem
- "Organic Chemistry Is Like..." - A Few Metaphors
- How To Do Well In Organic Chemistry: Advice From A Tutor
- Guest post: "I went from being afraid of tests to actually looking forward to them".
Thanks for your response and I am also not getting any relevant information for this, by the way thanks for helping, can i get your contact information, if yes my e-mail is attached.
Thank you for the nice explanation,
I want to ask what does ‘A’ means in A-value, why is it called A-value?
Winstein defined it in 1955 as the free-energy preference of a substituent for the equatorial position. It was defined in this paper. I’m not sure use of the letter A refers to any physical property however. (I don’t have access to this paper otherwise I’d try to give you more information).
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01626a037?journalCode=jacsat&quickLinkVolume=77&quickLinkPage=5562&selectedTab=citation&volume=77
Hello,
This is a great explanation, thank you! How would you compare the A-values between isopropyl and propyl? Thanks so much!
Isopropyl: 2.15 , propyl is similar to ethyl, around 1.75
Just FYI in the tert-butyl images, the second with the group in the axial position shows isopropyl instead of tert-butyl. Great explanation!
Fixed – thank you so much.
For the figure of tert-butyl under number 6. why did the methyl group over the cyclohexane become just an H?
Fixed. Thanks for the heads-up
Great job ,amazing explanation ,stupendous visuals but can u give the reference from where u got the energy values of all the above mentioned substituted cyclohexanes.
These come from experimental measurement. At some point in the near future I’ll include references.
A-o-A thanks so much